Mahabharat is an Indian television series based on the Hindu epic of the same name. The 94-episode Hindi series^[1] originally ran from 2 October 1988 to 15 July 1990 on DD National.^[2] It was produced by B. R. Chopra and directed by his son Ravi Chopra. The music was composed by Raj Kamal. The script was written by the Urdu poet Rahi Masoom Raza, based on the original story by Vyasa. Costumes for the series were provided by Maganlal Dresswala.^[3]

Each episode ran for approximately 60 minutes and began with a title song that consisted of lyrical content and two verses from the Bhagavad Gita.^[4] The title song was sung and the verses rendered by singer Mahendra Kapoor. The title song was followed by a narration by Indian voice artist Harish Bhimani of a personification of Time, detailing the current circumstances and highlighting the spiritual significance of the content of the episode. It is the most successful Mahabharata series ever produced in the television.

Mahabharat Katha Part II - Story of Barbarik and Veer Babhruvahan was a spin-off series which contained portions and stories left out in Mahabharat.

• 1Cast

Cast[edit]

Main[edit]

• Nitish Bhardwaj as Dwarkadheesh Bhagwan Shri Krishna, Incarnation of Lord Vishnu/ Devaki-Vasudev's younger son/ Foster son of Nand and Yashoda, Radha's Consort, Balaram and Subhadra's brother/ Pandavas' cousin, husband of Rukmini and others
  • Kewal Shah as Adolescent Krishna
• Arjun (Firoz Khan) as Kuntiputra Arjuna, 3rd Pandava/ son of Kunti and Indra/ husband of Draupadi, Uloopi, Chitrangada and Subhadra/ brother-in-law of Balaram-Krishna/ father of Abhimanyu
  • Ankur Javeri as Young Arjun
• Pankaj Dheer as Angaraj Karna, son of Kunti and Surya/ Adhiratha-Radha's foster son/ King of Anga Desh
  • Harendra Paintal as Young Karna
• Gajendra Chouhan as Chakravarti Samrat Dharamraj Yudhishthir, 1st Pandav/ son of Kunti and Yama / Eldest son of Kuru Clan/ King of Indraprastha and later Hastinapura/ husband of Draupadi
• Praveen Kumar as Kuntiputra Bhim, 2nd Pandav/ son of Kunti and Vayu/ Second eldest son of Kuru clan/ Yuvraaj(crown Prince) of Indraprastha/husband of Draupadi and Hidimbi/ father of Ghatotkacha
• Sameer Chitre as Nakul, 4th Pandav, son of Madri and Ashwini Kumara/ husband of Draupadi
• Sanjeev Chitre as Sahadeva, 5th Pandav, son of Madri and Ashwini Kumara/ husband of Draupadi
• Roopa Ganguly as Samragni Yagyaseni Draupadi, Wife of all Pandav/Also called as Panchali/ Yagyaseni/ Younger daughter of Drupad/ Princess of Panchala/Sister of Dhrishtadhyumna and Shikhandi
• Aloka Mukherjee as Subhadra, Arjuna's 2nd wife/ Abhimanyu's mother/ Vasudev's daughter hence Krishna-Balaram's sister and Yadava princess
• Mukesh Khanna as Gangaputra Devavrata Bhishma, Shantanu-Ganga's eighth son/ eighth Vasu/ Satyavati's step-son
  • Krish Mallik as Adolescent Bhishma
• Puneet Issar as Duryodhan, Eldest son of Gandhari and Dhitarashtra/ Elder brother of 99 Kauras/ Husband of Bhanumati
• Vinod Kapoor as Dushasan, Second son of Gandhari and Dhitarashtra/ Duyodhan's younger brother
• Surendra Pal as Dronacharya, Guru of Kauravas and Pandavas
• Pradeep Rawat as Ashwatthama, son of Dronacharya
• Girija Shankar as Maharaj Dhritrashtra, Vichitravirya's son from Ambika(eldest)/ later king of Hastinapur/ father of Kauravas
• Renuka Israni as Maharani Gandhari, wife of Dhritrashtra/ Queen of Hastinapur/ mother of Kauravas/ princess of Gandhara
• Tarakesh Chauhan as Maharaj Pandu, Vichitravirya's son from Ambalika(youngest)/ King of Hastinapur/ father of Pandavas
• Nazneen as Maharani Kunti, Pandu's first wife/ mother of Karna, Yudhisthira, Bhim and Arjun/ Daughter of Shoorsen hence Vasudev's sister and Yadava princess/ Foster daughter of Kuntibhoj
• Roma Manik as Rani Madri, Pandu's second wife/ Madra princess/ mother of Nakul and Sahadev
• Virendra Razdan as Mahamantri Dasi Putra Vidur, the Mahaa Mantri of Hastinapur / son of Ambika's head maid, Parishrami/ half-brother to the kings Dhritarashtra and Pandu of Hastinapura and also the uncle of Pandavas and Kauravas
• Gufi Paintal as Shakuni, Gandhari's brother/ later King of Gandhara

Recurring[edit]

• Sagar Salunke as Balram, Vasudev's elder son
  • Chetan Hansraj as Adolescent Balram
• Razak Khan as Ghatotkach
• Mayur Verma (Master Mayur) as Abhimanyu
• Varsha Usgaonkar as Uttara, Abhimanyu's wife/ Virata princess
• Dinesh Anand as Vikarna, Son of Gandhari and Dhitarashtra/ Duyodhan's younger brother
• Kamlesh Maan as Devi Sulabha, Vidur's wife
• Dharmesh Tiwari as Kripacharya, Kulguru, Family Teacher
• Lalit Tiwari as Sanjaya, Dhritarashtra's advisor and also his charioteer
• Raj Babbar as Chakravarti Samrat Bharat, ancestor of Kauravas and Pandavas/ son of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala
• Ashalata as Rajmata Shakuntala, Bharata's mother / King Dushyanta's wife
• Rishabh Shukla as Maharaj Shantanu, descendant of Bharata
• Kiran Juneja as Mata Ganga, Shantanu's first wife/ Bhisma's mother/ the holy river of Hindus.
• Debashree Roy as Rajmata Satyavati, Shantanu's second wife/ Vichitravirya and Chitrangada's mother/ Bhisma's step-mother
• Sudesh Berry as Maharaj Vichitravirya, Shantanu-Satyavati's second son after Chitrangada, Bhisma's step brother
• Meena Chakrabarty as Maharani Ambika, 2nd princess of Kashi/ Vichitravirya's first queen
• Menaka Babbar as Ambalika, 3rd princess of Kashi/ Vichitravirya's second queen
• Ayub Khan as Parikshit, son of Abhimanyu and Uttara/ Grandson of Arjuna-Subhadra
• Om Katare as Adhiratha, Charioteer/Karna's foster father
• Saroj Sharma as Radha, Adhiratha's wife/ Karna's foster mother
• Ramlal Gupta as Ugrasen, King of Mathura
• Goga Kapoor as Kans, son of Ugrasen
• Ashok Banthia as Senapati Kritvarma
• Ajay Sinha as Akroor, Vrishni Chief
• Bashir Khan as Satyaki, General
• Vishnu Sharma as Vasudev, Son of Shoorsen, prince of Vrishni tribe
• Kshama Raj as Rohini, Vasudev's elder wife
• Sheela Sharma as Devaki, Vasudev's younger wife
• Rasik Dave as Nand Raj, Chief of Gokul/ Foster father of Krishna
• Manju Vyas as Yashoda, Nand's wife/ Foster mother of Krishna
• Channa Ruparel as Maharani Rukmini, Krishna's chief wife
• Parijat as Mata Radha, Krishna's consort
• Pradeep Sharma as Drupada
• Arun Bakshi as Dhrishtadyumna
• Paintal as Shikhandi/ Sudama
• Ashok Sharma as Virata, King of Virata
• Chandni Sharma as Sudeshna, Queen of Virata
• Sameer Rajda as Uttar, crown prince of Virata
• Sharat Saxena as Kichak, Army General of Virata
• Kapil Kumar as Shalya
• Deep Dhillon as Jayadratha, Dussala's husband, Kaurava's brother-in-law
• Rakesh Bidua as Kashya, King Of Kashi
• Jahnavi as Amba, 1st princess of Kashi
• Vikrant Mathur as Subala, Shakuni's and Gandhari's Father, King of Gandhara
• Shivendra Mahal as Parshuram / Lord Shiva
• Dara Singh as Hanuman (cameo)
• Satish Kaul as Indra
• Gopi Krishna as Chitrasena
• Rana Jung Bahadur as Jarasandh, King of Magadha, Father-in-law of Kans
• Karunakar Pathak as Shishupala, King of Chedi, Cousin of Krishna and Balaram
• Pawan Shukla as Shalv Kumar, Prince of Salwa Kingdom
• Prem Sagar as Rishi Kanva
• Pankaj Berry as Rishi Kindama, sage who cursed Pandu
• Rajesh Vivek as MaharishiVed Vyas
• Vikas Prasad as Ekalavya
• Randhir Singh as Hidimba / Bhootana (Putana)
• Sabrina as Bhootana, (Putana)
• Paramjeet Chima as Dashraj, Satyavati's Father
• Harish Bhimani as Samay/ Narrator
• Sumeet Raghavan as Young Sudama

Episodes[edit]

Episode 1 - Introduction of Kuru Family, Raja Bharat and Raja Shantanu

Episode 2 - Ganga Kills Her Sons

Episode 3 - Bhishma Is Grown-up

Episode 4 - Bhisma Pratigya/Iccha Mrityu Vardaan

Episode 5 - Amba, Ambika and Ambalika's Introduction

Episode 6 - Birth of Pandu, Dhritarashtra and Vidur

Episode 7 - Karna's Birth-story, Dhritarashtra and Gandhari Get Married and Pandu and Kunti Get Married

Episode 8 - Madri is gifted to Pandu, Pandu is resting and Sage Kindama's curse on Pandu

Episode 9 - Dhritarashtra is king his sanyas and Kansa is king and Akashwani about Krishna

Episode 10 - Birth of Balarama and Five Pandavas

Episode 11 - Krishna Janma

Episode 12 - Pootna's Death

Episode 13 - Krishna brahmand darshan and Krishna gets caught while stealing makhan

Episode 14 - Maiya Mori Mai nahi makhan khayo and Kaliya Nag Tandav

Episode 15 - Radha and Gopikas, protest against Mathura, Devakasur and Trulambasur Vadh

Episode 16 - Kansa invites Krishna to Mathura

Episode 17 - Kansa Vadh

Episode 18 - Pandu's Death

Episode 19 - Satyavati, Ambika, Ambalika take sanyas with Rishi Vyas

Episode 20 - Duryodhan Poisons Bhim and Bhim Gets Strength of 1000 Elephants

Episode 21 - Sudama's chivda and Drona arrives to Hastinapur

Episode 22 - Shastra Pooja, Drona insults Karna and Arjun's Test

Episode 23 - Ekalavya, Karna's Education, Arjun's Test of Bird's Eye

Episode 24 - All grown up, prince is to be nominated and everyone exhibit their skills in Rangbhoomi, Karna challenges Arjun and Duryodhan gives Anga desh to Karna

Episode 25 - Drona's guru dakshina to capture Dhrupad

Episode 26 - Krishna gets Sudarshan chakra from Parshuram, defeats Jarasandh and orders building Dwarika

Episode 27 - Yudhishthir Is Crowned as Prince. Rukmini Is Being Forced to Marry Shishupal

Episode 28 - Krishna Rescues Rukmini

Episode 29 - Lakshagriha Is Built in Varnavata by Purochan

Episode 30 - Tunneling in Varnavat Begins

Episode 31 - Escape from Lakshagriha

Episode 32 - Hidimb Vadh and Bhima's marriage

Episode 33 - Bakasur Vadh

Episode 34 - Dristadyumna & Draupadi Birth and Draupadi Swayamvar

Episode 35 - Arjun Wins Draupadi and Later She Became the Wives of 5 Pandavas

Episode 36 - Pandavas Leave from Panchal to Hastinapur

Episode 37 - Pandavas Arrives at Hastinapur and Kingdom Is Divided

Episode 38 - Pandav Get Khandavprastha

Episode 39 - Coronation of Yudhirsthir, Khandavprastha Becomes Indraprastha

Episode 40 - Arjun runs away with Subhadra

Episode 41 - Arjun Weds Subhadra. Arjun Gets Devdatta Conch and Gandiva and Bhima Gets His Gada

Episode 42 - Jarasandh Vadh, Rajsuya Yagnya begins, Shishupal's Story

Episode 43 - Rajsuya Yagya, Shishupal Vadh

Episode 44 - Vyas Predicts War, Draupadi Laughs at Duryodhan

Episode 45 - Pandavas Go to Hastinapur to Gamble

Episode 46 - Yudhishthir Loses Everything

Episode 47 - Vastraharan of Draupadi

Episode 48 - Pandavas Get Back Everything

Episode 49 - Re-match of Dyut

Episode 50 - Vanvas Begins

Episode 51 - Gandharvas Catch Duryodhan

Episode 52 - Arjun Worships Lord Indra and Lord Shiva for Divyastra and Gets Pashupatastra

Episode 53 - Krishna's story of one grain of rice, Bhim meets Ghatotkach and Hanuman, Arjun learns dance from Chitrasen

Episode 54 - Arjun gets curse of impotency from Urvashi, Abhimanyus as a kid, Jayadraths head is shaved

Episode 55 - Story of Poisoned Water and Yaksha, Abhimanyu Is Grown-up

Episode 56 - Agyatvas in Matsya Desh

Episode 57 - Karna's curse, Draupadi as Maid Sairandhri rejects Keechak

Episode 58 - Keechak Vadh by Bheema

Episode 59 - Kaurav Attack Matsya Desh

Episode 60 - Viraat yudh and clothes for Uttara's dolls

Episode 61 - Abhimanyu's Marriage and Pandavs Decide to Send a Doot to Hastinapur

Episode 62 - Dhritarashtra Does Not Agree and Sends Sanjay

Episode 63 - Duryodhan gets Narayani Sena from Krishna

Episode 64 - Krishna Goes to Hastinapur as Shanti Doot

Episode 65 - Krishna tooks Virat Avtar and Indra takes Karna's kawach kundala

Episode 66 - Karna's Identity Is Disclosed

Episode 67 - Vidur resigns as a prime minister, Kunti meets Karna

Episode 68 - Sanjay gets divya drishti, Ulluk goes to Pandavas

Episode 69 - Duryodhan tricks Shalya to join Kauravas

Episode 70 - Shikhandi's Story

Episode 71 - Arjun Worships Goddess Durga, Rules of War Laid

Episode 72 - Kurukshetra War Begins and Arjun Drops His Weapons, Geeta Saar Begins

Episode 73 - Geeta Saar Continues

Episode 74 - Geeta Saar Continues and Krishna Shows His Maha-Avtaar

Episode 75 - Yudhishthir Gets Blessings, Yuyutsu Changes Side and War Begins, Abhimanyu Faces Bhishma

Episode 76 - Uttar dies, Arjun faces Bhishma and day 2 begins

Episode 77 - Arjun is unstoppable, 3rd day is over, 4th day begins, Bhim is surrounded, 10 Kauravs are killed, Krishna takes out his Sudarshan

Episode 78 - 9th Day Is Over and 16 Kauravs Are Dead, Bhishma Tells Arjun How to Take Him Out of the War

Episode 79 - Bhishma lies on the Bed of Arrows, Karna meets Bhishma

Episode 80 - Day 11, Drona tries to capture Yudhishthir but is unsuccessful, Shantanu comes to Bhishma

Episode 81 - Chakra Vyuh Planned, Duryodhan Promises Susharma

Episode 82 - Abhimanyu Vadh

Episode 83 - Arjun Vows to Kill Jayadrath and Story About Jayadrath's Curse

Episode 84 - Arjun Breaks Kamal Vyuh to Get to Jayadrath

Episode 85 - Jayadrath Vadh

Episode 86 - Ghatotkach dies

Episode 87 - Drona Dies

Episode 88 - Dushasana dies and Karna fights with Arjun, Krishna puts the rath in the land so that Arjun is saved

Episode 89 - Karna's curse, Karna Dies

Episode 90 - Shakuni Dies, Yudhishthir Curses All Woman Kind and Duryodhan Becomes Iron Bodied

Episode 91 - Balaram arrives, Bhim-Duryodhan Gada Yudh

Episode 92 - Duryodhan Dies, Ashwathama, Kripa and Kritvarma Remain, Parikshit's Story

Episode 93 - Dhritarashtra Tries to Kill Bhim

Episode 94 - Yudhisthir Becomes King of Hastinapur, Bhishma Dies

Episode 95 - Mahavir Barbrik

Production[edit]

According to production team member Kishore Malhotra, the total cost of producing the series was ₹9 crore (US$1.3 million).^[5]Nitish Bharadwaj was chosen by B R Chopra, Ravi Chopra, (screenplay writer) Pandit Narendra Sharma and (dialogue writer) Rahi Masoom Raza, to play the central role of Krishna, at the age of 23.^[6][7] Firoz Khan was chosen to portray the character of Arjuna (which he later adopted as his screen name, not to become confused with a more popular actor of the same name) despite being rejected in auditions.^[8] Praveen Kumar was selected to portray Bhima after Chopra was looking for someone 'who could look the robust mythological character'.^[9] Around six actors were shortlisted for the role of Draupadi, including Juhi Chawla, who opted out of the show as she had bagged a film. Ramya Krishnan and Roopa Ganguly were the final names, and at last Roopa Ganguly was chosen, as her Hindi was good. Govinda (actor) and Chunky Pandey were signed for the role of Abhimanyu, but they opted out when they bagged films. Later, Master Mayur played the role.^[10]Raj Babbar and Debashree Roy were the only two star actors of that time, who agreed to be parts of this venture.^[11]

Broadcast[edit]

It was shown in the United Kingdom by the BBC,^[12] where it achieved audience figures of 5 million.^[13][14] It was also the first programme broadcast on BBC2 after its 1991 revamp,^[15] but had also been shown late at night on BBC 1 the previous year.^[16] It has also been shown on FBC TV in Fiji and Star Utsav. It also aired on Epic. Dubbed versions were aired in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and also in Indonesia in the early 1990s on TPI (now MNCTV) and in the early 2000s on ANteve (now antv).

Reception[edit]

• Roopa Ganguly enacting in the Vastraharan sequence.
• The sequence is often claimed to be the most climactic one of the series.^[17] For the sequence Chopra recreated the visual effect of the Vastraharan sequence of Babubhai Mistry's Mahabharat (1965) starring Padmini as Draupadi.^[18] His visual effects won more favour than that of the 1965 film and has still been considered by a part of critics to be the most brilliant in line.^[19][20]
• While Vyasa wrote about Dharma providing Draupadi with clothes, Chopra, in the sequence, delineated the popular myth of Krishna having provided with clothes, which received criticism that Chopra had been led by religious fanaticism.^[21]

Lavanya Mohan of The Hindu on her article 'Retelling of Mahabharata on Television over the years' wrote 'The version that left the maximum impact on me is BR Chopra’s. Yes, the sets were gaudy, the effects comical, and the acting got a little too dramatic at times, but the writing and the way the episodes were paced ensured that the series was ahead of its time.'It is commonly known to be associated with this serial along with 'Ramayana' serial, where it is said that streets in cities remained isolated and people left their work to watch this series.^[22]

Home media[edit]

The series was uploaded on the website 'Rajshri.com' along with its dubbed Tamil version.^[23] Home video of Bengali dubbed version of its series has been released by Heart Video.^[24]

Legacy[edit]

Mahabharat along with Ramayana (1987) became one of the successful mythological television series in Indian television. Many actors went on to become popular through the series. Mukesh Khanna shot to fame as Bhishma and went on to name his production company after the character's name and Roopa Ganguly went on to become a successful actress in Bengali cinema.^[25][26]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'B.R. Chopra (Indian filmmaker) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia'. Britannica.com. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
2. ^McLain, Karline (2009). India's immortal comic books: gods, kings, and other heroes. Indiana University Press. p. 46. ISBN978-0-253-22052-3.
3. ^'Behind the scenes: Dress designers to actors & deities'. The Tribune. 20 April 2003. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
4. ^Title Song Lyrics from the TV Series Mahabharat, 21 September 2013, retrieved 1 December 2014
5. ^Mahabharat Ki Mahabharat: The Making of B.R. Chopra's 'Mahabharat'
6. ^''I DID NOT want to play Krishna in Mahabharat''.
7. ^'Janmashtami 2017: Actor Nitish Bharadwaj recollects his days from the Mahabharat'.
8. ^Tankha, Madhur (29 August 2012). 'Mahabharat's Arjun gets blacklisted!'. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
9. ^''Bheem' waiting for a special role'. 12 January 2009. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
10. ^'Actors talk about what went into making Mahabharat in 1988'. Hindustan Times. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
11. ^'B.R. Chopra's serial 'Mahabharat' promises to be another bonanza 31101988'. m.indiatoday.in. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
12. ^'BBC Genome:Mahabarat - transmission times'. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
13. ^':: omnimb.ca > Epic Hindi Language Series Mahabharat Launches Exclusively on Rogers OMNI Television Channels In Ontario and British Columbia ::'. 29 April 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
14. ^Jones, Mark (7 June 2013). 'The Returned: how British TV viewers came to lose their fear of subtitles'. the Guardian. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
15. ^'Watch Hindi Update Serials'. The TV Room. 16 February 1991. Retrieved 1 September 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
16. ^'Watch Hindi Update Serials'. The TV Room. Retrieved 1 September 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
17. ^'Actors talk about what went into making Mahabharat in 1988'. www.hindustantimes.com. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
18. ^'Mahabharat (1965) - Review, Star Cast, News, Photos'. Cinestaan. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
19. ^'Why the new Mahabharat is an epic fail- Entertainment News, Firstpost'. Firstpost. 17 September 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2019.
20. ^'Happy B'day BR Chopra: The Story Behind His Iconic 'Mahabharat''. The Quint. 22 April 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
21. ^Dissanayake, Wimal (1993). 'The concepts of evil and social order in Indian melodrama: an evolving dialectic'. In Dissanayake, Wimal (ed.). Melodrama and Asian Cinema. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-41465-4. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
22. ^Mohan, Lavanya (16 October 2015). 'Epic television'. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
23. ^'Mahabharat on the net'. 22 December 2006. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
24. ^'Mahabharat now in Bengali'. 20 February 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
25. ^Ghosh, Bishwanath (25 July 2015). 'Ideology vs. stature'. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.
26. ^Tankha, Madhur (8 May 2015). 'No child's play'. Retrieved 6 October 2018 – via www.thehindu.com.

External links[edit]

• Mahabharat on IMDb

The Mahābhārata (US: /məhɑːˈbɑːrətə/,^[1]UK: /ˌmɑːhəˈbɑːrətə/;^[2]Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam, pronounced [mɐɦaːˈbʱaːɽɐtɐm]) is one of the two major Sanskritepics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa.^[3] It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes and their succession. Along with the Rāmāyaṇa, it forms the HinduItihasa.

The Mahābhārata is an epic legendary narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava princes. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four 'goals of life' or puruṣārtha (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, and the story of Ṛṣyasringa, often considered as works in their own right.

Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.^[4] The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).^[5][6] According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.^[7]

The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as 'the longest poem ever written'.^[8][9] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa.^[10][11] W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of world civilization to that of the Bible, the works of William Shakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Quran.^[12] Within the Indian tradition it is sometimes called the Fifth Veda.

• 1Textual history and structure
• 3Synopsis
• 4Themes
• 5Versions, translations, and derivative works

Textual history and structure

The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a major character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa (history). He also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times.

The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation.

The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is first recited at Takshashila by the sage Vaiśampāyana,^[13][14] a disciple of Vyāsa, to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of the Pāṇḍava prince Arjuna. The story is then recited again by a professional storyteller named Ugraśrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12-year sacrifice for the king Saunaka Kulapati in the Naimiśa Forest.

The text was described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense 'tragic force' but dismissed the full text as a 'horrible chaos.'^[15]Moritz Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur 1909) considered that 'only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes' could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.^[16]

Accretion and redaction

Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times.^[17] The background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs 'after the very early Vedic period' and before 'the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.' That this is 'a date not too far removed from the 8th or 9th century B.C.'^[4][18] is likely. Mahābhārata started as an orally-transmitted tale of the charioteer bards.^[19] It is generally agreed that 'Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style,'^[18] so the earliest 'surviving' components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest 'external' references we have to the epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's 4th century BCE grammar Aṣṭādhyāyī 4:2:56.^[4][18] It is estimated that the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a 'final form' by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century CE).^[18] Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahābhārata, commented: 'It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach on the basis of the manuscript material available.'^[20] That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.

The Mahābhārata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses: the Bhārata proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the Aśvalāyana Gṛhyasūtra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized: Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyāsa, Bhārata with 24,000 verses as recited by Vaiśampāyana, and finally the Mahābhārata as recited by Ugraśrava Sauti with over 100,000 verses.^[21][22] However, some scholars, such as John Brockington, argue that Jaya and Bharata refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of Jaya with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in Ādiparvan (1.1.81).^[23]The redaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18^[24] and 12. The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anuśāsana-parva and the Virāta parva from the 'Spitzer manuscript'.^[25] The oldest surviving Sanskrit text dates to the Kushan Period (200 CE).^[26]

According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with Manu (1.1.27), Astika (1.3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. The astika version would add the sarpasattra and aśvamedha material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name Mahābhārata, and identify Vyāsa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probably Pāñcarātrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of the Huna in the Bhīṣma-parva however appears to imply that this parva may have been edited around the 4th century^{[citation needed]}.

The Ādi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) of Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, there are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahābhārata by 'thematic attraction' (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature. The Pañcavimśa Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhṛtarāṣtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of the Mahābhārata's sarpasattra, as well as Takṣaka, the name of a snake in the Mahābhārata, occur.^[27]

The Suparṇākhyāna, a late Vedic period poem considered to be among the 'earliest traces of epic poetry in India,' is an older, shorter precursor to the expanded legend of Garuda that is included in the Āstīka Parva, within the Ādi Parva of the Mahābhārata.^[28][29]

Historical references

The earliest known references to the Mahābhārata and its core Bhārata date to the Aṣṭādhyāyī (sutra 6.2.38) of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE) and in the Aśvalāyana Gṛhyasūtra (3.4.4). This may mean the core 24,000 verses, known as the Bhārata, as well as an early version of the extended Mahābhārata, were composed by the 4th century BCE. A report by the Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (c. 40 - c. 120 CE) about Homer's poetry being sung even in India^[30] seems to imply that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit. However, Indian scholars have, in general, taken this as evidence for the existence of a Mahābhārata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the Iliad.^[31]

Several stories within the Mahābhārata took on separate identities of their own in Classical Sanskrit literature. For instance, Abhijñānaśākuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (c. 400 CE), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahābhārata. Urubhaṅga, a Sanskrit play written by Bhāsa who is believed to have lived before Kālidāsa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by Bhīma.^{[citation needed]}

The copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District, Madhya Pradesh) describes the Mahābhārata as a 'collection of 100,000 verses' (śata-sahasri saṃhitā).^{[citation needed]}

The 18 parvas or books

The division into 18 parvas is as follows:

Historical context

The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.^[35] The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.^[36] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahābhārata corpus was built, with a climactic battle eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.

Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahābhārata narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds. Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma Nanda (400-329 BCE), which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle.^[37] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies.^[38]Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.^[39]

B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.^[40]John Keay confirm this and also gives 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.^[41]

Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid-2nd millennium BCE.^[42] The late 4th-millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by Aryabhata (6th century). Aryabhata's date of 18 February 3102 BCE for Mahābhārata war has become widespread in Indian tradition. Some sources mark this as the disappearance of Krishna from earth.^[43] The Aihole inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle, putting the date of Mahābhārata war at 3137 BCE.^[44][45]Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira (author of the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place the Bharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.^[46]

Synopsis

The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.

The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.

The Mahābhārata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue.

The older generations

King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees Satyavati, the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.

Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī arranges a swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.

The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to King Drupada as Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.

The Pandava and Kaurava princes

When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa to father children with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'^[47]). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest characters in the Mahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.

When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who curses him that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.

Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask Dharma the god of justice, Vayu the god of the wind, and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons, Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies. Madri Commits Sati out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.

Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers were Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the Kurukshetra war.

Lakshagraha (the house of lac)

After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers. Dhritarashtra wanted his own son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving justice.

Shakuni, Duryodhana and Dusasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding. During this time Bhima marries a rakshashi Hidimba and has a son Ghatotkachh. Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.^[48]

Marriage to Draupadi

Whilst they were in hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī. The Pandavas disguised as Brahmins come to witness the event. Meanwhile Krishna who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below, a feat only Karna, Arjuna and Krishna himself could perform. After all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi refusing to marry a sut putra. After this the swayamvara is opened to the brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves. Thus, Draupadi ends up being the wife of all five brothers.

Indraprastha

After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by Takshaka, the king of snakes and his family. Through hard work the Pandavas are able to build a new glorious capital for the territory at Indraprastha.

Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhisthra wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among kings.

The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.^[49] They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in. Bhima, Arjun, the twins and the servants laugh at him. In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhisthira) who had insulted Duryodhana. Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game at Shakuni's suggestion.

The dice game

Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.

Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return

The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and they are discovered just after the end of the year.

At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fails, because Duryodhana objected that they were discovered in the 13th year of their exile and the return of their kingdom was not agreed. Then the Pandavas fought the Kauravas, claiming their rights over Indraprastha.

The battle at Kurukshetra

The two sides summon vast armies to their help and line up at Kurukshetra for a war. The kingdoms of Panchala, Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandyas, Telinga, and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans like the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas. The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlika people, Kambojas and many others. Before war being declared, Balarama had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict and leaves to go on pilgrimage; thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer for Arjuna.

Before the battle, Arjuna noticing that the opposing army includes his own kith and kin, including his great grandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona, has grave doubts about the fight and falls into despair.At this time,Krishna reminds him of duty as a Kshatriya to fight for his just cause in the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.

Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.

The end of the Pandavas

After 'seeing' the carnage, Gandhari, who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.

The Pandavas, who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishthira gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, and Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhishthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.

Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.

The reunion

The Mahābhārata mentions that Karna, the Pandavas, Draupadi and Dhritarashtra's sons eventually ascended to svarga and 'attained the state of the gods' and banded together — 'serene and free from anger.'^[50]

Themes

Just war

The Mahābhārata offers one of the first instances of theorizing about dharmayuddha, 'just war', illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like proportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots; no attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded.^[51]

Versions, translations, and derivative works

Critical Edition

Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in current Mahābhārata studies for reference.^[52] This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or 'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata.

Regional versions

Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include the Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu and kattaikkuttu, the plays of which use themes from the Tamil language versions of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi.^[53]

Outside the Indian subcontinent, in Indonesia, a version was developed in ancient Java as Kakawin Bhāratayuddha in the 11th century under the patronage of King Dharmawangsa (990–1016)^[54] and later it spread to the neighboring island of Bali, which remains a Hindu majority island today. It has become the fertile source for Javanese literature, dance drama (wayang wong), and wayang shadow puppet performances. This Javanese version of the Mahābhārata differs slightly from the original Indian version. For example, Draupadi is only wed to Yudhishthira, not to all the Pandava brothers; this might demonstrate ancient Javanese opposition to polyandry.^{[citation needed]} The author later added some female characters to be wed to the Pandavas, for example, Arjuna is described as having many wives and consorts next to Subhadra. Another difference is that Shikhandini does not change her sex and remains a woman, to be wed to Arjuna, and takes the role of a warrior princess during the war.^{[citation needed]} Another twist is that Gandhari is described as antagonistic character who hates the Pandavas: her hate is out of jealousy because during Gandhari's swayamvara, she was in love with Pandu but was later wed to his blind elder brother instead, whom she did not love, so she blindfolded herself as protest.^{[citation needed]} Another notable difference is the inclusion of the Punakawans, the clown servants of the main characters in the storyline. These characters include Semar, Petruk, Gareng and Bagong, who are much-loved by Indonesian audiences.^{[citation needed]} There are also some spin-off episodes developed in ancient Java, such as Arjunawiwaha composed in 11th century.

A Kawi version of the Mahabharata, of which eight of the eighteen parvas survive, is found on the Indonesian island of Bali. It has been translated into English by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi.^[55]

Translations

A Persian translation of Mahabharata, titled Razmnameh, was produced at Akbar's orders, by Faizi and `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni in the 18th century.^[57]

The first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,^[58] published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the public domain and is available online.^[59][60]

Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is in progress, published by University Of Chicago Press. It was initiated by IndologistJ. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D. Gitomer of DePaul University (book 6), J. L. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11–13) and Wendy Doniger of the University of Chicago (books 14–18).

An early poetry translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the Mahābhārata into English verse.^[61] A later poetic 'transcreation' (author's own description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal, is complete, and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010.^{[needs update]} Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available.

A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is based not on the Critical Edition but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.

Indian economist Bibek Debroy has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010.

Many condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by Ramesh Menon, William Buck, R. K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, K. M. Munshi, Krishna Dharma, Romesh C. Dutt, Bharadvaja Sarma, John D. Smith and Sharon Maas.

Derivative literature

Bhasa, the 2nd- or 3rd-century CE Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the Marabharata, Urubhanga (Broken Thigh), about the fight between Duryodhana and Bhima, while Madhyamavyayoga (The Middle One) set around Bhima and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first important play of 20th century was Andha Yug (The Blind Epoch), by Dharamvir Bharati, which came in 1955, found in Mahabharat, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting with Ebrahim Alkazi it was staged by numerous directors. V. S. Khandekar's Marathi novel, Yayati (1960) and Girish Karnad's debut play Yayati (1961) are based on the story of King Yayati found in the Mahabharat.^[62] Bengali writer and playwright, Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, Anamni Angana, Pratham Partha and Kalsandhya.^[63]Pratibha Ray wrote an award winning novel entitled Yajnaseni from Draupadi's perspective in 1984. Later, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote a similar novel entitled The Palace of Illusions: A Novel in 2008. Gujarati poet Chinu Modi has written long narrative poetry Bahuk based on character Bahuka.^[64]Krishna Udayasankar, a Singapore-based Indian author has written several novels which are modern-day retellings of the epic, most notably the Aryavarta Chronicles Series. Suman Pokhrel wrote a solo play based on Ray's novel by personalizing and taking Draupadi alone in the scene.

Amar Chitra Katha published a 1,260 page comic book version of the Mahabharata.^[65]

In film and television

In Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic have been made, dating back to 1920.^[66] In Telugu film Daana Veera Soora Karna (1977) directed by and starring N. T. Rama Rao depicts Karna as the lead character.^[67] The Mahābhārata was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in Kalyug.^[68]Prakash Jha directed 2010 film Raajneeti was partially inspired by the Mahabharata.^[69] A 2013 animated adaptation holds the record for India's most expensive animated film.^[70]

In the late 1980s, the Mahabharat TV series, directed by Ravi Chopra,^[71] was televised on India's national television (Doordarshan). The same year as Mahabharat was being shown on Doordarshan, that same company's other television show, Bharat Ek Khoj, also directed by Shyam Benegal, showed a 2-episode abbreviation of the Mahabharata, drawing from various interpretations of the work, be they sung, danced, or staged. In the Western world, a well-known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version The Mahābhārata (1989).^[72] In the late 2013 Mahabharat was televised on STAR Plus. It was produced by Swastik Productions Pvt.

Uncompleted projects on the Mahābhārata include a ones by Rajkumar Santoshi,^[73] and a theaterical adaptation planned by Satyajit Ray.^[74]

Jain version

Jain versions of Mahābhārata can be found in the various Jain texts like Harivamsapurana (the story of Harivamsa) Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons), Pandavacaritra (lives of Pandavas) and Pandavapurana (stories of Pandavas).^[75] From the earlier canonical literature, Antakrddaaśāh (8th cannon) and Vrisnidasa (upangagama or secondary canon) contain the stories of Neminatha (22nd Tirthankara), Krishna and Balarama.^[76] Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (4th–3rd century BCE).^[77] According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva.^[78] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha (who is killed by Krishna). Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monks and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.^[79] In keeping with the law of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain liberation.^[78] Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.^[80] According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath's marriage with Rajamati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.^[81][82]

Kuru family tree

This shows the line of royal and family succession, not necessarily the parentage. See the notes below for detail.

Key to Symbols

• Male: blue border
• Female: red border
• Pandavas: green box
• Kauravas: yellow box

Notes

• a: Shantanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor called Kuru. His marriage to Ganga preceded his marriage to Satyavati.
• b: Pandu and Dhritarashtra were fathered by Vyasa in the niyoga tradition after Vichitravirya's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively.
• c: Karna was born to Kunti through her invocation of Surya, before her marriage to Pandu.
• d: Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were acknowledged sons of Pandu but were begotten by the invocation by Kunti and Madri of various deities. They all married Draupadi (not shown in tree).
• e: Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their Pandava cousins.
• f : Although the succession after the Pandavas was through the descendants of Arjuna and Subhadra, it was Yudhishthira and Draupadi who occupied the throne of Hastinapura after the great battle.

The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for Vyasa and Bhishma whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya and Chitrangada who were born after them. The fact that Ambika and Ambalika are sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna, Yudhishthira and Bhima, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.

Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include Chitrāngada, the eldest brother of Vichitravirya. Vidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.

Cultural influence

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic^[83] and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life.^[84] In more modern times, Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.^[85][86]

Various modern day television shows and novels have taken inspiration from the Mahabharata.

Editions

• The Mahabharata: Complete and Unabridged (set of 10 volumes) by Bibek Debroy, Penguin Books India.
• The Mahābhārata of Vyasa (18 volumes), transcreated from Sanskrit by P. Lal, Writers Workshop.

See also

References

1. ^'Mahabharata'. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary,
2. ^'Mahabharata'. Oxford Dictionaries Online.
3. ^Datta, Amaresh (1 January 2006). The Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj to Jyoti). ISBN978-81-260-1194-0.
4. ^ ^abcBrockington (1998, p. 26)
5. ^'How did the 'Ramayana' and 'Mahabharata' come to be (and what has 'dharma' got to do with it)?'.
6. ^Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata – 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)
7. ^bhārata means the progeny of Bharata, the legendary Jain king who is claimed to have founded the Bhāratavarsha kingdom.
8. ^James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 399. ISBN978-0-8239-3179-8.
9. ^T. R. S. Sharma; June Gaur; Sahitya Akademi (New Delhi, Inde). (2000). Ancient Indian Literature: An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. p. 137. ISBN978-81-260-0794-3.
10. ^Spodek, Howard. Richard Mason. The World's History. Pearson Education: 2006, New Jersey. 224, 0-13-177318-6
11. ^Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian. Writings on Indian Culture, History and Identity, London: Penguin Books, 2005.
12. ^W. J. Johnson (1998). The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night. Oxford University Press. p. ix. ISBN978-0-19-282361-8.
13. ^Davis, Richard H. (2014). The 'Bhagavad Gita': A Biography. Princeton University Press. p. 38. ISBN9781400851973. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
14. ^Krishnan, Bal (1978). Kurukshetra: Political and Cultural History. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 50. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
15. ^Hermann Oldenberg, Das Mahabharata: seine Entstehung, sein Inhalt, seine Form, Göttingen, 1922,^{[page needed]}
16. ^'The Mahabharata' at The Sampradaya Sun
17. ^A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 by Maurice Winternitz
18. ^ ^abcdBuitenen (1973) pp. xxiv–xxv
19. ^'The Mahabharata: How an oral narrative of the bards became a text of the Brahmins'.
20. ^Sukthankar (1933) 'Prolegomena' p. lxxxvi. Emphasis is original.
21. ^Gupta & Ramachandran (1976), citing Mahabharata, Critical Edition, I, 56, 33
22. ^SP Gupta and KS Ramachandran (1976), p.3-4, citing Vaidya (1967), p.11
23. ^Brockington, J. L. (1998). The Sanskrit epics, Part 2. Volume 12. BRILL. p. 21. ISBN978-90-04-10260-6.
24. ^18 books, 18 chapters of the Bhagavadgita and the Narayaniya each, corresponding to the 18 days of the battle and the 18 armies (Mbh. 5.152.23)
25. ^The Spitzer Manuscript (Beitrage zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens), Austrian Academy of Sciences, 2004. It is one of the oldest Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Silk Road and part of the estate of Dr. Moritz Spitzer.
26. ^Schlingloff, Dieter (1969). 'The Oldest Extant Parvan-List of the Mahābhārata'. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 89 (2): 334–338. doi:10.2307/596517. JSTOR596517.
27. ^J.A.B. van Buitenen, Mahābhārata, Volume 1, p.445, citing W. Caland, The Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa, p.640-2
28. ^Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 291–292. ISBN978-81-208-0264-3.
29. ^Jean Philippe Vogel (1995). Indian Serpent-lore: Or, The Nāgas in Hindu Legend and Art. Asian Educational Services. pp. 53–54. ISBN978-81-206-1071-2.
30. ^Dio Chrysostom, 53.6-7, trans. H. Lamar Crosby, Loeb Classical Library, 1946, vol. 4, p. 363.
31. ^Christian Lassen, in his Indische Alterthumskunde, supposed that the reference is ultimately to Dhritarashtra's sorrows, the laments of Gandhari and Draupadi, and the valor of Arjuna and Suyodhana or Karna (cited approvingly in Max Duncker, The History of Antiquity (trans. Evelyn Abbott, London 1880), vol. 4, p. 81). This interpretation is endorsed in such standard references as Albrecht Weber's History of Indian Literature but has sometimes been repeated as fact instead of as interpretation.
32. ^'The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXV (Bhagavad Gita Chapter I)'. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
33. ^'The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XLII (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter XVIII)'. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
34. ^The Ashvamedhika-parva is also preserved in a separate version, the Jaimini-Bharata (Jaiminiya-ashvamedha) where the frame dialogue is replaced, the narration being attributed to Jaimini, another disciple of Vyasa. This version contains far more devotional material (related to Krishna) than the standard epic and probably dates to the 12th century. It has some regional versions, the most popular being the Kannada one by Devapurada Annama Lakshmisha (16th century).The Mahabharata^{[citation needed]}
35. ^In discussing the dating question, historian A. L. Basham says: 'According to the most popular later tradition the Mahabharata War took place in 3102 BCE, which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century BCE, but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century BCE; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the Brahmana literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier.' Basham, p. 40, citing HC Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, pp.27ff.
36. ^M Witzel, Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state, EJVS vol.1 no.4 (1995); also in B. Kölver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India, München, R. Oldenbourg, 1997, p.27-52
37. ^A.D. Pusalker, History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol I, Chapter XIV, p.273
38. ^FE Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p.180. He shows estimates of the average as 47, 50, 31 and 35 for various versions of the lists.
39. ^Pargiter, op.cit. p.180-182
40. ^B. B. Lal, Mahabharata and Archaeology in Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.57-58
41. ^Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York City: Grove Press. p. 42. ISBN978-0-8021-3797-5.
42. ^Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.246, who summarize as follows: 'Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE as the date of the war while the Puranic data place it in the 10th/9th century BCE. Archaeological evidence points towards the latter.' (p.254)
43. ^'Lord Krishna lived for 125 years'.
44. ^'5151 years of Gita'.
45. ^Gupta and Ramachandran (1976), p.55; AD Pusalker, HCIP, Vol I, p.272
46. ^AD Pusalker, op.cit. p.272
47. ^'Sanskrit, Tamil and Pahlavi Dictionaries' (in German). Webapps.uni-koeln.de. 11 February 2003. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
48. ^'Book 1: Adi Parva: Jatugriha Parva'. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
49. ^'Book 2: Sabha Parva: Sabhakriya Parva'. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
50. ^Rajagopalachari, Chakravarti (2005). 'Yudhishthira's final trial'. Mahabharata (45th ed.). Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. ISBN978-81-7276-368-8.
51. ^Robinson, P.F. (2003). Just War in Comparative Perspective. Ashgate. p. 117. ISBN9780754635871. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
52. ^Bhandarkar Institute, Pune—Virtual Pune
53. ^Srinivas, Smriti (2004) [2001]. Landscapes of Urban Memory. Orient Longman. p. 23. ISBN978-81-250-2254-1. OCLC46353272.
54. ^'The Javanization of the Mahābhārata, Chapter 15. Indic Transformation: The Sanskritization of Jawa and the Javanization of the Bharata'.
55. ^'Indonesian Ramayana: The Uttarakanda by Dr I Gusti Putu Phalgunadi: Sundeep Prakashan, New Delhi 9788175740532 Hardcover, First edition. - AbeBooks.com'. www.abebooks.com. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
56. ^'picture details'. Plant Cultures. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
57. ^Gaṅgā Rām, Garg (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 1. p. 129. ISBN978-81-7022-376-4.
58. ^Several editions of the Kisari Mohan Ganguli translation of the Mahabharata incorrectly cite the publisher, Pratap Chandra Roy, as the translator and this error has been propagated into secondary citations. See the publishers preface to the current Munshiram Manoharlal edition for an explanation.
59. ^The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
60. ^P. Lal. 'Kisari Mohan Ganguli and Pratap Chandra Roy'. An Annotated Mahabharata Bibliography. Calcutta.
61. ^The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa translated by Romesh Chunder Dutt at the Online Library of Liberty.
62. ^Don Rubin (1998). The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 195. ISBN978-0-415-05933-6.
63. ^The Mahabharata as Theatre by Pradip Bhattacharya, June 13, 2004.
64. ^Topiwala, Chandrakant (1990). 'Bahuk'. Gujarati Sahityakosh (Encyclopedia of Gujarati Literature) (in Gujarati). 2. Ahmedabad: Gujarati Sahitya Parishad. p. 394.
65. ^Pai, Anant (1998). Pai, Anant (ed.). Amar Chitra Katha Mahabharata. Kadam, Dilip (illus.). Mumbai: Amar Chitra Katha. p. 1200. ISBN978-81-905990-4-7.
66. ^Mahabharat on IMDb (1920 film)
67. ^Daana Veera Shura Karna on IMDb
68. ^'What makes Shyam special'. Hinduonnet.com. 17 January 2003. Archived from the original on 12 January 2011. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
69. ^Kumar, Anuj (27 May 2010). 'Fact of the matter'. The Hindu.
70. ^'Mahabharat: Theatrical Trailer (Animated Film)'.
71. ^Mahabharat on IMDb (1988–1990 TV series)
72. ^The Mahabharata on IMDb (1989 mini-series).
73. ^'In brief: Mahabharat will be most expensive Indian movie ever'.
74. ^C. J. Wallia (1996). 'IndiaStar book review: Satyajit Ray by Surabhi Banerjee'. Archived from the original on 14 May 2008. Retrieved 31 May 2009.
75. ^Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN978-81-208-1691-6. p. 351-52
76. ^Shah, Natubhai (1998). Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Volume I and II. Sussex: Sussex Academy Press. ISBN978-1-898723-30-1. vol 1 pp. 14–15
77. ^Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN978-81-208-1691-6. p. 377
78. ^ ^abJaini, Padmanabh (1998). The Jaina Path of Purification. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN978-81-208-1578-0. p.305
79. ^Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN978-81-208-1691-6. p. 351
80. ^Roy, Ashim Kumar (1984). A history of the Jainas. New Delhi: Gitanjali Pub. House. p. 20. ISBN978-0-8364-1136-2. OCLC11604851.
81. ^Helen, Johnson (2009) [1931]. Muni Samvegayashvijay Maharaj (ed.). Trisastiśalākāpurusacaritra of Hemacandra: The Jain Saga. Part II. Baroda: Oriental Institute. ISBN978-81-908157-0-3. refer story of Neminatha
82. ^Devdutt Pattanaik (2 March 2017). 'How different are the Jain Ramayana and Jain Mahabharata from Hindu narrations?'. Devdutt. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
83. ^'Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita'. Yoga.about.com. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
84. ^Maharishi Mahesh Yogi; On The Bhagavad Gita; A New Translation and Commentary With Sanskrit Text Chapters 1 to 6, Preface p.9
85. ^Stevenson, Robert W., 'Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga', in: Minor, p. 44.
86. ^Jordens, J. T. F., 'Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita', in: Minor, p. 88.

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External links

• All volumes in 12 PDF-files (Holybooks.com, 181 MB in total)